LU Lucknow University bba notes free study material pdf download

BY LU NOTES 😚 2024-2025 Syllabus UNIT I Data Summarisation; Significance of Statistics in Business Decision Making [View] Data and Information [View] Classification & Tabulation of Data [View] Frequency Distribution [View] Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median & Mode [View] Measures of Dispersion: Range, Mean Deviation & Standard Deviation [View] UNIT II Correlation and Regression; Significance of Correlation [View] Types of Correlation [View] Scatter Diagram Method [View] Karl Pearson Coefficient of Correlation [View] Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient [View] Regression Introduction [View] Regression Lines and Equations [View] Regression Coefficients [View] UNIT III Probability; Concepts in Probability [View] Laws of Probability [View] Sample Space [View] Independent Events [View] Mutually Exclusive Events [View] Conditional Probability [View] Bayes’ Theorem [View] Theoretical Probability Distributions: Binomial, Poisson & Normal Distribution [View] UNIT IV Sa...

Communication can face several barriers that make it difficult for people to understand each other. These barriers can happen due to the environment, language, emotions, or even the way organizations work. Let’s explore them: Physical Barriers Physical barriers arise from disturbances in the environment or surroundings that make communication difficult. Noise : Background noise can distract the listener or make it hard to hear. Distance : Long geographical distances often lead to poor network signals or slow communication, like delays in video calls or emails. Discomfort : Adverse weather or an uncomfortable environment can make it hard for someone to focus. Technical Issues : Problems like a broken computer, faulty printer, or internet issues can delay communication. Language Barriers ( semantic barriers teacher bahut puchta hai ye class me ) Language differences or unclear expressions can create misunderstandings. Confusing Words : Words that sound the same but have different meaning...

  Key elements of communication:   Sender:  The person who first has the idea/ message and sends it to the recipient.   Encoding:  The way the information is described or translated into a message and put in verbal or non-verbal medium is known as encoding  Message:  The information that the sender wants to send. Messages can be in speech and writing, signs, pictures or symbols depending upon the situation and the nature and importance of information desired to be sent.   Communication channel:  The method of delivering the message. The message may be oral or written. Written messages can be transmitted through computer, telephone, cell phone, apps or televisions.   Receiver:  An individual or a group of individuals for whom the information was intended to reach. The receiver is at the other end of the communication process.   Decoding:  It refers to interpretation and conversion of information communicated into intelligi...

the best communicators on their part must exhibit certain characteristics which enable them to maximise their abilities. Some of them include:  1. Good listening skills –  In order for a communication to be effective it is essential to develop a good listening skill rather than speaking skills. It is important to hear the other person in order to avoid premature evaluation and verbal conflicts.  2. Open Minded –  While communicating people must keep an open mind and accept that they too could be wrong. Hence it is essential to keep an open mind and learn from others.  3. Being attentive –  During communication it is essential to be attentive and listen to the communicator patiently without fidgeting or being distracted  4. Participating –  Just like being a good listener is essential it is also necessary to participate and show interesting the discussion. Seven Cs of Effective Communication Effective communication is crucial for the success of an...

Communication is an integral activity of human beings. Communication in its simplest form means transferring of information from one person to the other. The word communication has been derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’ which means ‘to share’. Hence, it can be defined as the process of transferring, sharing, exchanging or transmitting, ideas, facts, feelings, data, information and experience from one entity to other through a medium. Introduction to Business Communication Business communication is the process of sharing/exchanging information between people within and outside the organisation in order to accomplish organizational goals and have mutual understanding of the commercial benefit of the organization.  Business Communication can be of two types:  (i) Oral Communication  An oral communication can be formal or informal. Generally business communication is a formal means of communication, like: meetings, interviews, group discussion, speeches etc. An exampl...

 Accounting Standards: Meaning and Scope, Importance   1000 RUPAY KA NOTE:AISE PRINCIPALS JO WITHIN INDIA LAGE I n order to ensure transparency consistency, comparability, adequacy and reliability of financial reporting, it is essential to standardize the accounting principles and policies, Accounting Standards provide framework and standard accounting polices so that the financial statements of different enterprises become comparable.  Accounting Standards are selected set of accounting policies or broad guidelines regarding the principles and methods to be chosen out of several alternatives. The Accounting Standards Board (ASB) of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) formulas Accounting Standards to be established by the Council of the ICAI.  Objective of Accounting Standards:   Objective of Accounting Standards is to standarize the diverse accounting policies and practices with a view to eliminate to the extent possible the non-comparability...

Ratio Analysis Ratio analysis is referred to as the study or analysis of the line items present in the financial statements of the company. It can be used to check various factors of a business such as profitability, liquidity, solvency and efficiency of the company or the business. Ratio analysis is mainly performed by external analysts as financial statements are the primary source of information for external analysts. What is Ratio  A ratio is a mathematical expression that compares two or more quantities, showing the relative size or proportion of one quantity to another. It can be expressed in various forms, such as fractions, percentages, or simple numbers. Use of Ratio Analysis Ratio analysis is an essential tool for evaluating a company's financial health. Here are its key uses: Comparing Financial Performance: It allows stakeholders to compare the financial performance of two or more companies by analyzing various ratios related to profitability, liquidity, and efficiency...

Introduction to Corporate Accountin g Corporate Accounting is considered as a special branch of accounting dealing with the accounting for companies. Definition The process of corporate accounting is dedicated to the financial operations of a company. In such a type of accounting, the corporate accountant is only concerned with the financial records of the firm. The term can be technically defined as a “normally performed activity so as to ascertain the financial and operational status of a company This type of accounting is essential for maintaining transparency and accuracy in financial reporting and helps stakeholders make informed decisions. Definition of Analysis of Financial Statement A financial statement is a detailed report of a company’s financial activities, summarizing its financial position and performance over a specific period. It includes key documents such as the balance sheet, income statement, and cash flow statement, helping stakeholders assess the company’s financi...

  What is inventory valuation? First of all lets understand what is inventory :- It is an asset owned by a business for the purpose of selling. ex; Raw material, Work in progress, Fined goods etc Inventory valuation is a process companies use to calculate the value of their unsold stock when preparing financial statements. Inventory is considered an asset, so its value must be recorded in the balance sheet. This value is also essential for calculating the inventory turnover ratio, which helps businesses make informed purchasing decisions. Why is inventory valuation important? Inventory valuation is important for several reasons: Determining Asset Value: It helps assign a financial value to unsold inventory, which is crucial for accurate accounting. Preparing Financial Statements: It ensures the inventory value is properly recorded in the balance sheet. Handling Price Fluctuations: Since item prices may vary during the year, inventory valuation helps establish a consistent method...

 Final Accounts While finalising the accounts, a sole proprietorship entity prepares financial statements to determine its financial results (by Income Statement) and financial position (by Balance Sheet).  Accordingly, the components of financial statements of a sole proprietorship organisation include –  a. Manufacturing Account (only in case of manufacturing entities)  b. Trading Account  c. Profit and Loss Account  d. Balance Sheet Sole proprietorship firms do not require any Profit and Loss Appropriation Account as the entire profit is attributable to the sole owner. Trading Account:  Trading accounts shows the results of buying and selling of goods, Trading accounts represents the Gross Profit/Gross Loss of the concern out of sale and purchase for the particular accounting period, It is a nominal account, and is closed by transfer of the Gross Profit/ Gross Loss to the P/L A/c.  Study of Debit side of Trading Account  (a) Opening Stock:...

 Treatment of capital and revenue expenditure  Expenditure means spending on something.  This can be a payment is cash or can also be the exchange of some valuable item in exchange for goods or services. It is the process of causing a liability by a commodity.  An expense is a word very similar to expenditure but expense shows the deduction in the value of the asset while expenditure simply denotes the obtaining of assets.  Two types of expenditures are present on the basis of time durations,  That is   Capital expenditures   Revenue expenditures  There different types of capital expenditure, for example   Cash money spent on business purposes.   Purchasing of Plants and machinery items   IT items   Electric power equipment   Permanent additions to existing fixed assets  There are two sub-categories of revenue expenditures:   Direct Expenses: (PRODUCT KO BNANE ME KHARCHA KARNA) These include the cost...

 Definition of Trial Balance  Trial balance may be defined as a statement or a list of all ledger account balances taken from various ledgers on a particular date to check the arithmetical accuracy.  According to the Dictionary for Accountants by Eric. L. Kohler, Trial Balance is defined as  “a list or abstract of the balances or of total debits and total credits of the accounts in a ledger, the purpose being to determine the equality of posted debits and credits and to establish a basic summary for financial statements”.  Trial Balance is merely a listing of balances on a particular date. it is supposed to be prepared at the end of accounting period. Features of a Trial Balance   Following are the features of Trial Balance:  a) It is a list of debit and credit balances which are extracted from various ledger accounts.  b) It is not an account. It is only a statement of debit and credit balances of account.  c) The purpose is to establish ari...

 Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) refer to a common set of accepted accounting principles, standards, and procedures that companies and their accountants must follow when they compile their financial statements.  GAAP is a combination of authoritative standards (set by policy boards) and the commonly accepted ways of recording and reporting accounting information.  GAAP improves the clarity of the communication of financial information.  Understanding GAAP  GAAP is meant to ensure a minimum level of consistency in a company’s financial statements, which makes it easier for investors to analyze and extract useful information. GAAP also facilitates the cross-comparison of financial information across different companies.  These 10 general principles can help you remember the main mission and direction of the GAAP system.  (i) Principle of Regularity  The accountant has adhered to GAAP ru...

Accounting is vital for keeping financial operations honest and clear in organizations. It ensures that everyone follows the rules. But sometimes, there are ethical issues in accounting because people might do things that aren't right.  The Importance of Integrity and Transparency Ethical principles like integrity and transparency are crucial in accounting. They make sure financial information is handled honestly, building trust with stakeholders and the public. Even though it's tough, accountants must stick to these standards. They should say no to any pressure to act unethically and avoid conflicts of interest. This not only follows professional rules but also helps their organizations grow and last. Challenges to Ethical Accounting Practices (pyq) 1. Misrepresentation of Financial Information Issue : Deliberately falsifying financial statements to show improved performance. Impact : Misleads stakeholders, including investors and creditors, leading to poor decision-maki...

Basis of accounting  1. Accrual basis of accounting:  Accrual basis of accounting is a method of recording transactions by which revenue, cost, assets and liabilities are reflected in the accounts for the period in which they accrue. The basis includes consideration relating to deferrals, allocations, depreciation and amortisation. It is also called mercantile basis of accounting.  2. Cash basis of accounting:  cash basis of accounting is a method of recording transactions by which revenue, cost, assets and liabilities are reflected in the accounts for the period in which actual receipts or actual payments are made.  3. Hybrid or mixed basis:  under the hybrid system of accounting, incomes are recognised as in cash basis of accounting and expenses are recorded on accrual basis

Introduction to Accounting: Meaning, objectives, process, and branches of Accounting Definition of Accounting According to the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (Year 1961), accounting is the “art of recording, classifying and summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events which are, in part at least, of a financial character, and interpreting the result thereof”.  According to the American Accounting Association (Year 1966), accounting is “the process of identifying, measuring and communicating economic information to permit informed judgments and decisions by the users of accounting”. Objectives of Accounting  Keep Records : To write down all financial transactions. Find Profit or Loss : To check how much money is earned or lost. Know Financial Position : To see the overall health of the business. Follow Rules : To meet legal requirements. Share Information : To give financial data to investors, creditors, and others. Plan...